Biomarkers Journal Open Access

Histological Markers: The Microscopic Clues to Understanding Disease

Suzanne Hevner^* Department of Neurosurgery, University Malaya, Malaysia
^*Correspondence: Suzanne Hevner, Department of Neurosurgery, University Malaya, Malaysia, Email:

Received: 01-Oct-2024, Manuscript No. IPBM-24-21798; Editor assigned: 03-Oct-2024, Pre QC No. IPBM-24-21798 (PQ); Reviewed: 17-Oct-2024, QC No. IPBM-24-21798; Revised: 22-Oct-2024, Manuscript No. IPBM-24-21798 (R); Published: 29-Oct-2024, DOI: 10.36648/2472-1646.10.5.47

Introduction

Histological markers are biological molecules or structural features identifiable under the microscope that serve as indicators of various physiological or pathological states. In medical pathology, they are used for diagnosing diseases, evaluating the severity of a condition, and understanding the cellular composition of tissues. These markers play a crucial role in the identification and classification of cancers, inflammation, infections, and other medical conditions. Histological markers encompass a wide range of substances, including proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids. With advances in molecular biology, the field of histology has significantly expanded to include immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization techniques, which allow the detection of specific proteins and genetic material in cells and tissues. This article delves into the various types of histological markers, their applications, and their relevance in clinical pathology and research. Cytoplasmic markers are proteins located within the cytoplasm of cells. They help identify specific types of cells based on their unique protein content. For example, cytokeratins are proteins found in the cytoplasm of epithelial cells, and different types of cytokeratins can be used to distinguish between various epithelial cancers. These intermediate filament proteins are a hallmark of epithelial cell differentiation. Cytokeratins are classified into different types, and specific types are expressed in different tissues.

Description

For instance, CK7 and CK20 are often used together in immunohistochemistry to classify tumors of epithelial origin, including colorectal and ovarian cancers. A type of intermediate filament, vimentin is commonly found in mesenchymal cells. Its presence in tumor cells may indicate a mesenchymal origin, making it a valuable marker in distinguishing between epithelial and mesenchymal tumors. This is a muscle-specific intermediate filament protein. It serves as a marker for muscle differentiation, especially in distinguishing between different types of sarcomas (tumors of connective tissue). Nuclear markers are proteins localized within the nucleus and are often associated with cell proliferation, apoptosis, or specific cell functions. Ki-67: This is one of the most commonly used proliferation markers. Ki-67 is expressed during all active phases of the cell cycle (G1, S, G2, and mitosis), but not in the resting phase (G0). As such, it is widely used to assess the growth fraction of a given cell population, particularly in tumors. p53: Known as the “guardian of the genome,” p53 is a tumor suppressor protein involved in cell cycle regulation and apoptosis. Mutations in the TP53 gene, which encodes this protein, are found in a large number of cancers. Detection of p53 in histological samples can provide insights into tumor progression and response to therapy.

Conclusion

Estrogen and Progesterone Receptors (ER/PR): These are hormone receptors found in the nuclei of cells, particularly in breast tissue. The presence of ER and PR is a key determinant in breast cancer diagnosis and treatment, as tumors expressing these receptors often respond to hormone therapy. CD Markers (Cluster of Differentiation Markers): CD markers are cell surface molecules used to identify different cell types, particularly immune cells. For instance, CD3 is a marker for T lymphocytes, CD19 is a marker for B lymphocytes, and CD68 is a marker for macrophages. These markers are used extensively in immunohistochemistry for the diagnosis of hematological malignancies like lymphoma and leukemia.

Acknowledgement

None.

Conflict Of Interest

The author’s declared that they have no conflict of interest.